As WikiLeaks famously showed, Nicolas Sarkozy’s involvement in the imperial attack on Libya rested on the fear that Muammar Gaddafi, the revolutionary hero of the country, would replace France as French-speaking Africa’s dominant power and replace the CFA franc system with a system based on the gold dinar. This would have not only destroyed most French influence in Africa, but it would also have made the French bourgeoisie suffer a heavy blow.

As Liberia heads to a closely contested runoff election, the possibilities are decidedly limited.

The enemies became allies to fight the TPLF, but old grievances and new disputes are threatening to revive the conflict.

Following a surge in terror attacks in 2020 and 2021, north-eastern Côte d’Ivoire has since seen a period of relative calm. Violent extremists haven’t disappeared, however, and are still active in southern Burkina Faso.

Madagascar is set to elect its president on 16 November 2023, for the next five